Negotiating architecture: a study of architects and clients in design practice

Based on field research in architectural offices, this study argues that design occurs in a negotiation context in which architect-client interactions are central. During the design process, participants shape their understanding of the problems and their expectations for its solution. Thus, it is from the interactions between participants that the building's design emerges. Participants' preconceptions about the design profession arise from what is termed the architectural myth. This research uncovers the discrepancy between the architectural myth and design as it is practiced. A review of theory and literature explores the proposition that architectural design occurs within a negotiation context. Theory concerning the nature of design problems and the role of interaction in solving these problems points to the feasibility of a negotiation perspective for architecture. Literature concerning professionalism, architectural practice, and client roles indicates that professions by nature involve a complex client-professional dynamic. Six months of field research in three architectural offices discloses the client-professional dynamic. The findings derive from observations made of day to day design practice, particularly client-architect meetings, interviews with architects and clients, review of project files, and writings by architects. Analysis of this material describes architect-client relations within two sets of categories. First, the distinct nature of the design context within which architects and clients operate is characterized. Design is shown to be a responsive art involving diffuse influence, ambiguity, unexpected outcomes, significant stakes, and an open-ended process. Second, in this context the particular architect-client interactions serve the purposes of mutual assessment, establishing rapport, setting limits, avoiding conflict, and negotiating agreement. The study brings into focus discrepancies between design as it is practiced and the architectural myth which influences collaboration among design process participants. To further an understanding of architect-client relations in design practice, directions for future research are outlined. This study provides an analytic framework for future research based on the categories established. In addition, knowledge gained in this research is applied to the design of a course to teach architecture with a negotiation orientation.