Procurement integrity: Best practices for PPP projects in Iraq and Malaysia

The construction sector has undergone significant evolution with the widespread adoption of public–private partnership (PPP) models in various countries. The appeal of PPP lies in its ability to balance risk, improve efficiency through strategic bundling or unbundling of responsibilities, and enhance access to affordable private financing. For emerging economies such as Iraq, examining the experiences of more advanced implementers like Malaysia is essential to adapt best practices and avoid common pitfalls. This research employed a systematic literature review, using predefined inclusion criteria that focus on policy documents, empirical case studies, and peer-reviewed articles from 2000 to 2024, sourced from Scopus, Web of Science, and governmental databases. The comparison between Iraq and Malaysia is guided by key performance indicators, including risk allocation, regulatory frameworks, private sector participation, and institutional readiness. The findings reveal stark contrasts in governance structures, policy consistency, and institutional capacity that influence PPP outcomes. While Malaysia demonstrates a mature, centralised framework with proactive private engagement, Iraq exhibits fragmented governance, regulatory gaps, and a cautious policy environment. These results highlight the importance of legal reform, capacity building, and investment incentives in the Iraqi context. Theoretically, the study contributes to the literature by framing a context-sensitive model of PPP readiness for emerging economies, integrating institutional theory with procurement practice. The implications emphasise the need for Iraq to strategically enhance its legal and institutional frameworks, stimulate private sector confidence, and adopt adaptable PPP models to foster sustainable infrastructure development.